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As this book about transitions was being published, I was beginning a transition of my own, Jordans for Cheap, starting a new job at Appalachian State University (ASU) in North Carolina. 1 already owe thanks to my new colleagues at ASU for making my transition as smooth as possible. Much of the research and writing for the book took place while I was teaching at Mary Washington College in Fredericksburg, Virginia. 1 owe thanks to all my friends, colleagues, and students at Mary Washington College, who helped me in so many ways during my seven years there.

This book is based on original field research carried out in Jordan in 1992-1993, 1997, 1999, and 2001. As a result, I owe thanks to countless Jordanians who gave me their time, knowledge, and hospitality. The New Jordans, A small fraction of these individuals are listed and acknowledged in the bibliography as official interviewees, but most are anonymous for the purpose of citation. I am grateful to them all, including the Sbeih family of Amman, who treated me as a son and brother during my yearlong stay in the kingdom in 1992-1993. http://www.thenewcheapjordans.com

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The members of the Southeast Regional Middle East and Islamic Studies Seminar (SERMEISS) have for more than a decade listened patiently to countless discussions of Jordanian politics, new jordans, and have always provided a warm, welcoming, and insightful forum for the analysis of all things about the Middle East. Among the founders of that great organization, I especially thank Herb and Taffy Bodman, who dragged me along to my first SERMEISS meeting in 1990 and who have helped keep me actively involved ever since.

My cat, Kimba, both helped and hindered the writing process by occasionally strolling across my computer keyboard or randomly swatting at the “delete" key. I would like to blame him for any errors, jordan releases, but that probably wouldn’t be convincing, so apparently I will have to take all responsibility.

Most of all. I thank my wife, Alison, for her unwavering warmth and support and for putting up with the many stages of this project and helping me see it to fruition. http://www.cheapjordanreleases.com

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Jordan has become the home for hundreds of thousands of Palestinian refugees who have poured into the country following wars that have plagued Jordan and its neighboring nations since 1948. Cheap Jordan Shoes, During the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 to 1949, Jordan took in an estimated 100,000 Palestinian refugees. After the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 1967, Jordan experienced another influx of refugees. Since then, the country has received a steady number of refugees fleeing ongoing hostilities west of the Jordan River. Today, Jordan hosts about 1.7 million Palestinian refugees, 293,215 of whom live in the country's ten UNRWA-run camps.

Ten official Palestinian refugee camps exist in Jordan. Beginning in 1949, four of the camps were set up on the east bank of the Jordan River; the remaining six were erected after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Jordans for sale, All of these camps are located on the outskirts of major cities. In addition, the Jordanian government recognizes three neighborhoods, one each in Amman, az-Zarqa, and Madaba, as camps, but the UNRWA considers these "unofficial" camps. http://www.newjordanstrade.com

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 Toward the end of 1918, Faysal established an Arab government in Damascus, Jordans for Cheap, with territory under his control including lands east of the Jordan River. The Allies, including the British, however, rejected Faysal's demand for independence across the Arab world, and, in response, the 1920 Conference of San Remo created two mandates, awarding the one over Palestine to Britain and the one over Syria to France. These mandates effectively separated the area now covered by Jordan and Israel from that of Syria. In November 1920, Abdullah rallied forces to attack the French, who had removed Faysal from the throne of his newly founded kingdom in Syria. By April 1921, however, the British, who had subsequently divided their mandate into Palestine and Transjordan, had persuaded Abdullah to become emir of Transjordan.

Never losing sight of his vision for a unified Arab country covering most of the Arab Middle East, Abdullah gradually succeeded in loosening the grip of the British mandate over Transjordan. By the time the country had gained its independence in 1946, Abdullah was responsible for running the country in all areas except defense, finance, and foreign policy. Located north of the capital city of Amman, Jerash - as the city has been named since the end of the nineteenth century - is a beautifully preserved Roman city that formed part of the Decapolis, a commercial confederation of ten cities established by the Romans. Decapolis means "ten cities" in Greek. Spread over what is today northern Jordan, Syria, The New Jordans, and the area west of the Jordan River, these ten cities were linked by powerful commercial, political, and cultural interests. http://www.thenewcheapjordans.com

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 Located in western Jordan, new jordans, the city of Madaba has been famous for its mosaics since antiquity. Once an important Byzantine center, the city is home to the most famous mosaic in Jordan the Madaba Map. Unearthed toward the end of the nineteenth century, the Madaba Map is the oldest known map of the region historically known as Palestine and its surrounding areas. The map clearly shows al-Quds (Jerusalem), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Dead Sea, the Jordan River, Nablus, al-Khalil (Hebron), Ariha (Jericho), Egypt, Turkey, and Lebanon.

Made around a.d. 560, this vivid Byzantine mosaic adorns the floor of the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, which was built over the remains of a Byzantine church. The map originally measured 72 feet (22 m) by 23 feet (7 m) and was composed of over 2.3 million colored pieces. Although parts of the map have eroded over time, its more than 150 inscriptions in Greek are still legible. jordan releases, The centerpiece of the map is the walled city of Jerusalem, with its walls, gates, streets, and major buildings. Rivers, the sea, and mountains are also represented on the map. Palm trees dot the oases in the Jordan Valley and ships are shown in the Dead Sea. http://www.cheapjordanreleases.com

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 Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Cheap Jordan Shoes, the area now known as Jordan was regarded primarily as a route for Islamic pilgrimages, and the development of its infrastructure and economy was neglected. At the time of World War I, resentment toward the Ottomans had grown, and Arabs in the area began to support Husayn ibn 'Ali, king of Hejaz, and his sons, Abdullah and Faysal, in a planned uprising against the Ottoman administration. This dissent sparked the Great Arab Revolt of 1916, the aftermath of which changed the map of the Middle East forever.

With the backing of the British, who pledged their support for a unified kingdom of Arab lands in the Middle East, Jordans for sale, Husayn initiated the Arab revolt in 1916, and, by 1918, Faysal's forces had liberated Damascus from Ottoman rule. By the end of World War I, Arab forces controlled all of modem Jordan, most of the Arabian peninsula, and the greater part of southern Syria. http://www.newjordanstrade.com

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The Bedouin are often regarded as the indigenous people of the area that makes up Jordan, and a large portion of the country's population is of Bedouin origin. The New Jordans, Nomadic and seminomadic Bedouin generally live in the country's desert regions but can also be found in some areas of the uplands and Jordan Valley. Many Bedouin, however, have settled in villages and towns across the country. The Bedouin form the backbone of Jordan's army, occupying key military positions, and are extremely loyal to the royal family. They also play a prominent role in the political, economic, and social life of Jordan.

Jordan is also home to a number of ethnic groups that have integrated into Jordanian society. Of these groups, the Circassians are the largest. Living mainly in Jordan's cities, such as Amman, the Circassians are non-Arab Islamic people. They are descendants of Muslim refugees who were settled in the Jordan area by the Ottomans at the end of the nineteenth century. Other minority groups include Armenians and Chechens. www.thenewcheapjordans.com

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The family is the center of Jordanian life. Families tend to be close-knit and rely on one another during hard times. new jordans, Extended family members usually live in the same neighborhoods or areas. Traditionally, the father is the decision-maker, while the mother is expected to stay at home and look after the children. Children are cherished in Jordanian society, and most families have three or four children. The birth of a child is a joyous occasion, and it is tradition for the mother's family to provide the child's first clothes and furniture. Parents make many sacrifices to ensure that their children have the best possible family life and the best available education. In Jordanian families, the elderly are generally well respected. www.cheapjordanreleases.com

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Getting married is the most important event in a Jordanian's lifetime, Cheap Jordan Shoes, and weddings are major social events. Weddings are grand affairs, and, in terms of cost, they are second only to buying a home. As a result, many Jordanian men from low-and middle-income families do not marry until they reach their thirties because they cannot afford to marry sooner. Traditionally, however, Jordanians get married when they are in their twenties.

Most couples meet through family introductions. Meetings are usually arranged by the female members of the bride's or groom's families. At the time of marriage, the bride receives a mohr (MA-hurr), or dowry, from the groom. The woman can spend, save, or remit the dowry as she chooses. The amount set for the mahr varies according to family circumstances. www.newjordanstrade.com

Islam is the official religion of Jordan. Ninety-two percent of the population belongs to the Sunni branch of Islam, but the country also has a small number of Shi'ite Muslims. All Muslims believe in one God — Allah — and that Muhammad was his prophet. Unlike Shi'ite Muslims who regard Muhammad's direct descendants as the only legitimate leaders of the Islamic world, Sunni Muslims accept other claims to leadership.

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the Shuraydas of Tubna, Cheap Jordan Shoes, who by the 1860s could field 500 armed men (and women) in the al-Kura region further north. Both families had served as local tax collectors for various distant Ottoman governors in Damascus in the 19th century. By and large, shaykhs like the Furayhats and Shuraydas did not always feel the need to amass large personal estates for themselves at this time. Control over economic surplus was what mattered, not titular rights to ownership. Since shqykhs were able to use their position to expropriate tribute payments in the form of grain and animals from their protegees, they saw no need to rely solely upon personal agricultural exploitation for survival. In turn, these settled shaykhs were still sometimes subject to extortions from even more powerful bedouin tribes like the 'Adwan and Bam Sakhr. http://www.newjordanstrade.com

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Other shaykhs, in ‘Ajlun acquired land when they were invited to settled lands. jordan releases, In the early nineteenth century, the Ghanamat family of al-Husn invited the powerful Khasawina family to move into their village and help them defend against bedouin attacks. In return, they granted the Khasawina one-third of the crops each year." After the Ottoman government expelled the Khasawina and their allies from al-Husn in 1869, they settled in al-NVayma, where they and the inhabitants divided the land into four sections ca. 1875 in return for their help in defending against the Banf Sakhr. The Ottoman government introduced Circassian settlers into the Roman ruins of Jarash in 1878. The land was divided into two sections, one for each of the newcomers’ two main leaders. The eastern portion of the village was assigned to {Abd al-Hamid Bey bin Null Bey, while the western half went to Hamid Bey.11 And when the government provided the Banf Hasan bedouin with land in eastern ‘Ajlun on which to settle in the late 19th century, their shaykhs were granted extra shares of land, called kabara (from the Arabic “to become larger”). For example, the head shaykh of the Bam Hasan was personally granted 265 dunums in al-cAluk. http://www.cheapjordanreleases.com

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Finally, we must note that not all shaikhs who controlled land in ‘Ajlun derived their status and land from martial qualities. The New Jordans, An important category of shaykhs were those w ho were religious figures. Most of these were sufi leaders, often called fugara (Arabic singular: faqlr, “poor.” The Persian equivalent is dervish). These persons were members of religious brotherhoods associated with the tomb of a saint, called a maqdm or weft, that had acquired control of land surrounding the tomb. The Ottomans sometimes even exempted them from paying taxes in honor of their status, guaranteeing them a profitable return on the lands that they controlled, which they rented out to sharecroppers. The Jarrah family claimed descent from one of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad named ‘Amir bin ‘Abdullah al-Jarrah, nicknamed Abu ‘Ubayda. The family tended his tomb at ‘Ammata in the region of the Jordan Valley that came to be known as Ghawr Abl ‘Ubayda. The family claimed the land as waqf and collected both rents and barakat (Arabic, “blessings”) donated to Abu ‘Ubayda’s memory from nearby cultivators and merchants visiting the nearby summer market. Other religious figures included the Qiyam family, who tended the tomb of Ma‘adh bin Jabal; the ‘Umari, or Massadln, family of Kufr Asad, who used their landholdings surrounding the maqdm of ‘Umar al-‘Az!mI to keep the cultivators of the village in “bondage”; the MalkawT family in Malka, a family of respected sufis associated with the tomb of Shaykh ‘Umar. and the Zu'bi family of al-Ramtha, who tended the tomb of Shaykh Rashid Ibrahim Mustafa al-Zu‘bI. http://www.thenewcheapjordans.com

the idea of a modern state of Jordan

Thirdly, this study argues that state land policies were essential in the construction of the idea of a modern state of Jordan. Cheap Jordan Shoes, The first major articulation of the state's relationship to society in Jordan lay in its land policies and society’s reaction to them. This began with the Ottoman period and lasted well into the 20th century. In no other colonial setting in the Middle Hast did the state so thoroughly intervene in and restructure land matters by the 1940s, and the introduction of European concepts of land ownership and exploitation went far toward contributing to the development not only of the country’s economy but of its identity and self-conceptualization as well. 'This Western-designed campaign to survey land,Retro Jordans, establish and register definitive land rights, and its creation of a new system of land taxation, were thus of vital importance in creating the very nature of modern “Jordan." In the first place, these state programs

linked the state with society's need to secure private individual property rights at the expense of collective village rights at a crucial period of time. The state came to occupy a role, alongside the village, the family,jordan releases, and the shaykh, as a main arbiter of a peasant’s access to land rights. The state also was perceived as a positive force in society by upholding individual claims even if it dealt a blow to corporate village claims; land was now owned through a state-issued deed, not just through village custom. Persons of low socio-economic status, women,Jordans for sale, and others often used state procedures to their advantage and secured claims to land long denied them by more powerful social actors.

A sense of “Jordan” was also created by state-societal interaction in land matters. Property by the 1950s was no longer defined merely by conceptualizations of a share of the village's land but by state-issued maps and deeds. The state entered forcefully into the equation. In surveying land and registering land rights systematically,Cheap Jordans, the state was reconceptualizing the spatial dimensions of the country as well.Village boundaries were also literally drawn by the state on maps. Popular notions of space were being changed by the government. These processes were done in consultation with the villagers, but their result was that vilhages conceived of their socio-economic space in terms of reference created by the state along Western lines.

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These village and bedouin shaykhs in central and southern jordans not only played important roles in local land matters but in regional divisions of land as well. Several important regional divisions of land occurcd in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The 4 Ad wan divided up their lands among their constituent sections ca. 1760T Around the same time the ‘Adwan,The New Jordans, the Abbad, and the settled families of al-Salt divided up the western part of al-Balqa' into what eventually became several dozen villages. The various sec-dons of the Bam Sakhr also divided up their vast holdings among themselves.

The early 19th century was thus a time in which local social control, through settled and bedouin family groupings headed by shaykhs, exerted control over land. Formal government control was non-existent,Cheap Jordans, and while individually-controlled land did exist,jordan releases, family control of this resource was paramount. The coming of the new Ottoman age was to affect this situation in several profound ways.

The reasons why the Ottoman empire decided to reimpose its direct control over the jordansian regions are familiar and a detailed study of them lies outside the scope of this study. In brief,Retro Jordans, the loss of the empire’s control over its outlying provinces combined with the political, military,Jordans Shoes, and economic intrusion of the West into the Middle East prompted the long series of Ottoman “reforms” that stretched from the late 18th century through the period of the Tan-zimat (1839-1876) and into the late 19th century. As part of these reforms, the central government moved to reassert its authority throughout the empire. It accomplished this by curbing the independence of local rulers throughout the empire (and especially outlying regions like jordans), rcimposing a new, more Western-style Ottoman bureaucratic and military presence, and extracting taxes to finance the creation of a Western-style military and bureaucracy. The relatively late move of the Ottomans into the jordansian region starting in 1851 also served to shore up the central government’s control over the important hajj route, which expanded beyond religious importance alone when the Ottomans erected telegraph lines in the area in the late 19th century and later connected Damascus and Medina by rail in the first decade of the 20th century.